Creative play

♥ Drawing

♥ Painting

♥ Building objects

This helps children express their own feelings and personalities
This is helpful who have experienced a upsetting life event such as death, abuse or a serious accident.

Play and motor development

Gross motor skills are helped by play activities that involving:
running climbing balancing and riding.
This includes:
climbing frames, sea saws, ride on toys, slides

Fine motor skills
This is developed by toys that require careful manipulation e.g threading beads, small construction bricks

Social play types:

Solitary play
Playing alone without paying attention to others

Parallel play
Playing alongside another children
Performing a similar activity but without watching or talking to them

Onlooking/onlooker play
Observing other children play but not joining in or interacting with children

Associated play
Playing in (close contact)/connection with another child e.g. ride on toys following each other and occasionally interacting with one another

Cooperative play
Activities that are only possible with 2 or more children joining in
Play expected roles
E.g. playing catch with a ball
Games only works if the child through the ball to each other in a catchable manner
Role play involves children playing different roles e.g. child and parent

This helps children learn how to share, take turns and to manage conflict

Health and safety:Risks

1. Falling/ Tripping/ Slipping
♥ Toys left on the hallway/stairs
♥ Loose rugs
♥ Highly polished floors
♥ Climbing equipment should be securely fitted into the ground
♥ Stair gates should be use to prevent falls

2. Suffocation/ Choking
♥ Toddlers putting things in their mouth e.g. construction bricks, balls
♥ Plastic bags

3. Strangulation
♥ Cords/ribbons shorter then 30cm

4. Infection
♥ Toys should be washable

5. Poisoning
♥ Non toxic paints
♥ Non toxic modelling clay
♥ Keep cleaning products out of the reach of children
♥ Medicine out of reach
♥ Toxic garden plants should be avoided

6. Drowning
♥ Cover pond with mesh

7. Cuts
♥ Unbreakable toys
♥ Not have sharp edges/points such as stiff metal wires
♥ Remove staples

8. Burns/ Scalds
♥ Saucepan handles should be kept turned in
♥ Matches should be kept out of reach of children
♥ fireguards

play features

0-1 Years(infant/baby)
♥ Discovery learning as children are learning through trial and error
♥ Repeated movements
Types of equipment:

♥ Rattles
♥ Baby gym
♥ Pop up toys


1-2years (infant)
♥ Discovery learning
♥ Repetitive play
♥ Developing coordination and mobility this is evident in their play eg talking when they are play and pushing a brick trolley
Types of equipment:

♥ Baby swing
♥ Push and pull toys
♥ Shape sorters
♥ Brick trolleys
♥ Toy telephones

Role of the adult:
♥ Interaction with baby
♥ Be alert of safety


2-3years (toddler)
♥ Take and intreast in other children
♥ Discovery learning
♥ Pretend play starts to appear
♥ Repetitive play
Types of equipment:

♥ Tricycle
♥ Paint
♥ Cuddly toys
♥ Tea sets and prams
♥ Simple jigsaw puzzles
♥ Dough

Role of adults:
♥ Awareness of safety
♥ Regular changes of activity
♥ Support during play


3-5 years (preschool)
♥ Children start to cooperate with each other
♥ Play become complex
♥ Children begin to use symbols e.g. drawings have meaning
♥ Gross and fine motor skills are more coordinated
Types of equipment:

♥ Dressing up clothes
♥ Sand, dough, water and paint
♥ Farm animals
♥ Building bricks
♥ Jigsaw puzzles
♥ Slides, swings and seesaws

Role of the adult:
♥ Awareness of safety
♥ Supervision
♥ Teaching children how to use large equipment safely
♥ Encouraging children how to solve their own difficulties


5-8years (school age)
♥ children play becomes more complex
♥ rules appear in games
♥ children plan play and negotiate with each other
♥ children show problem solving during play
Types of equipment:

♥ Musical instrument
♥ Den building
♥ Painting
♥ Drawing
♥ Junior sports: football, tennis
♥ Large equipment:
♥ Climbing frame
♥ Slides
♥ Wheeled toys such as bicycles, skateboards

Role of the adult:
♥ Give children independence and responsibility
♥ Supervision
♥ New opportunities for children

The social dimension of language

Motherese/parentese: they way adults communicate with babies and toddlers.

Adult communicate with babies:
♥ high levels of facial expressions e.g. exaggerated smiles
♥ close physical contact e.g. cuddles
♥ drawing child’s attention to objects e.g. pointing out of the window
♥ high pitch voices
♥ emphasising and repeating keywords in sentences
♥ short sentences

Children who spend time with adults that are responsive and interact with children score higher in cognitive tests.

Growth and development:

♥ Infant
Less then 2yrs

♥ Toddler
2-3yrs

♥ Preschool
3-5 yrs

♥ School age
5-8 yrs

Growth:
♥ cells divide which allows the bones to lengthen

Development:
♥ skills the child masters

Why physical growth is important?

♥ Children hand movements are linked to growth of the bones in their wrists

♥ The size and shape of a child affects the way adults treat them.
E.g. adults may give more responsibility to taller children.
Taller children tend to have higher self esteem
The shape of a child can affect their self esteem as well for example a child who is obese may suffer from low self esteem.

Allometric growth: the rate at which the child’s body parts grow unevenly.
For example the head as a baby is the same size as the feet.

Motor development:

Milestones: the skills the children master at certain ages

Gross motor skills:
♥ Large movements
♥ Whole body/ whole limb
♥ Develop before fine motor skills
♥ Walking, crawling, throwing

Fine motor skills:
♥ Smaller movements
♥ Involve fingers/hands
♥ Smaller muscles
♥ Requires coordination between the hands and eye
♥ Threading beads, putting lid on the bottle

Freud theory

Three parts of the self:
ID- “it/pleasure principle”
Immediate gratification is required therefore the person eats when they are hungry and have sex when they want.

EGO- “reality principle”
Control the ID
Person is conscious and is aware of circumstances
Delays gratification when necessary

SUPER EGO- “morality principle”
Person moral beliefs, what behaviours they think are right and wrong.

Psychosexual development stages:
Explains development of personality
Sexual motivation is genetically built in

ORAL STAGE 0-1years old
Erotic pleasure from the mouth
Activities involving the mouth, such as sucking, biting, and chewing
E.g. Sucking mother breast
Immediate gratification is required therefore babies protest when they are hungry or feel discomfort.
FIXATIONS- happens if they child does not successfully complete the oral stage
Dependence on others
Over-eating
Excessive smoking
Excessive drinking
Biting nails
Oral aggression such as sarcasm

ANAL STAGE 1-3years old
Erotic pleasure focus on the anus
Can control excretion
Ego develops
Able to delay gratification eg can wait to go to the toilet
FIXATIONS
Obsessively tidy
Preoccupied with money
An overly controlling (anal-retentive) personality
An easily angered (anal-expulsive) personality

PHALLIC STAGE 3-6 years old
Erotic pleasure from the genitals
Sexual desires for their parents begins to develop
Super-ego develops by the children taking on their parents set of attitudes and moral beliefs. The superego causes people to feel guilty when they go against society’s rules.

Oedipus conflict= boys conflict between desire with their mother and the fear of punishment by their father. The fear they felt was that their father would cut off their penis.

Electra conflict= the daughter is attached to her mother, but then a shift of attachment occurs when she realizes she lacks a penis. “Penis envy” is regret/resentment they do not have penises. They believe they have been castrated by their mother as a punishment. She desires her father whom she sees as a means to obtain a penis substitute (a child). She then represses her desire for her father and incorporates the values of her mother and accepts her inherent 'inferiority' in society.

Girls have weaker super egos because they have less to fear.

FIXATIONS
Guilt or anxiety about sex

Attachment:
Infant attach to their mother through feeding especially breast feeding giving the baby erotic pleasure in the oral stage.
Criticism: babies attach to people who do not feed them

Pro/anti social behaviour:
Moral beliefs are gained through identification with the same sex parent during the phallic stage
Moral beliefs vary depending on the parents; some parents value helping and cooperation and pass this on to their children. Whereas others value aggression and hostile competitiveness and pass this on to their children.

Strength of super ego:
People with a powerful superego overall the ego- produce more pro social behaviour.

Strength of the id:
A person with a stronger id is likely to be more impulsive and aggressive producing more anti social behaviour.

Sex differences/gender roles:
Through identification with their parents in the phallic stage they take on their parent’s beliefs and behaviours. For example if the father is interested in cars the son is likely to be interested in cars as well.

However, children who are raised without the same sex parent still display the usual sex differences in behaviour suggesting that parents are not the only influence.

Implications on child rearing:
In the child’s development Parents are more important for the children as appose to caregivers
Authoritarian parenting style is likely to give the child a stronger superego

Evaluation of Freud theory

Criticism:
♥ Babies suck objects but it can not be proved they do it for pleasure- weak evidence
♥ Not scientific research
♥ Implausible
♥ Women are morally weak then men reflects prejudiced against women at the time
♥ Impossible to test- there is no way of detecting parts of the personality or observing the unconscious motives
♥ Did not research kids

Strengths:
♥ Helps explain misunderstandings and conflicts that occur between people in everyday life.

enviromental factors (nurture)

Indirect factors

Culture
Some behaviours are seen unacceptable in certain cultures. For example, girls are discouraged from taking part in physical activities such as rough and tumble play, while boys are discouraged from dancing. In other cultures this may be more acceptable. As a result boys are likely to develop gross motor skills faster then girls and girls are likely to develop fine motor skills from doing activities like threading, drawing or playing in a home corner.

Some cultures may regard play as unimportant and emphasise on children sitting and being taught.

Attitudes to education can be affected due to how some cultures value educations as some cultures may see education for boys where some cultures may see education to girlish

In a culture where family is regarded as important they child will spend time with family and friends will help with the social and emotional development as the child is likely to feel secure with these relationships.

Social class
One social class of families may value education more then another. For example a parent may buy their child a book and spend time reading it to them and encouraging them to work hard at school.

Housing
A cramped or small house can lessen play opportunities for the child as they may not be able to play in the garden which will slow their gross motor skills and lack of play opportunities in general will slow down the rate at which the child should gain fine and gross motor skills.

Damp conditions, inadequate heating and ventilation can make children ill causing them to miss out on school. Moreover, damp and crowded conditions can cause hearing loss affecting child’s language development and ability to hear letters when they read.

Environmental factors (nurture)

Direct factors:

Parenting:

Parenting styles
Authoritarian:
♥ Strict rules
♥ Harsh punishments when rules are broken
♥ Emotionally cold and unaffectionate
♥ High demands or expectations of child’s behaviour and achievement.
♥ Provide highly structured activities
♥ Restrict the way in which their children play
Effects on children:
♥ Lack of confidence
♥ Child has little or no choice
♥ These children tend to be fearful, moody, easily annoyed, sulky and hostile.
♥ Children may rebel against their parents

Democratic:
♥ Emotionally warm
♥ Involves child in decision making
♥ Give frequent guidance
♥ Punishes serious wrong doing
♥ Encourage self reliance
♥ Keen for their children to do well
Effects on children:
♥ Popular with other children
♥ High self esteem
♥ Self controlled, cheerful, cooperative and motivated to do well.

Permissive:
♥ no rules/guidelines
♥ Focus on the needs and particularly the happiness of the child.
♥ Positive with their children
Effects on children:
♥ High self esteem
♥ Hard to share
♥ Cooperate with other or conform
♥ Hard to manage behaviour
♥ Older children may have to take on the role of the parent and look after younger siblings
♥ Children don’t know their boundaries therefore may go over their boundaries like experiment with drugs or drink over the limits with alchoal.

Disease:
Affects child’s development depending on the seriousness of the disease/illness and duration.

Sickle cell and asthma can restrict physical activity which affects gross motor development because can reduce the amount of running a child can do as well not being able to take part in vigorous activities.

Children with Epilepsy feel drowsy therefore find it difficult to concentrate on activities and will lack energy needed.

Children who have disease will have weaker immune systems and are likely to get ill quicker therefore the absence will affect their achievement as they will miss out on vital stages.

Children with hearing impairment will be slower at learning language.

Find it hard to make friends because of the risk of infections and they would find it hard to make friends because they are not always in school.

Children may miss out being on independent if the child’s parent/s is/are overprotective.

Child may have low self esteem if they feel “different” to the other children as they can not do the same things as other children for example sitting out during swimming lessons.

Nutrition:
Malnourished children will not be able to reach their potential height and limit their achievement

Children who are malnourished may find it hard to concentrate.

Bandura (1965) Bobo doll experiment

Children are shown a film where an adult is attacking a Bobo doll. The adult is shown kicking, throwing, punching and hitting the Bobo doll with a mallet.

Children in group A are shown the adult being praised with sweets and lemonade after beating up the doll.

Children in group B are shown the adult being told off after beating up the doll.

Children in group C are just shown the film where the adult is attacking the doll.

After the film each child spend 10 minutes in a playroom with a Bobo doll, the children behaviour was observed.

Children in group A and C showed same level of aggressive behaviour.

Children in B showed less aggression as they extract the cognition that aggressive behaviour would be punished.

Health and safety

Choking/Suffocation
Common risks in infants as they mainly put things in their mouth at this stage.
Plastic bags should be removed

Falling
Climbing frames should be screwed to the ground securely so they do not trip over
The area underneath play equipment should be tarmac, sand so minimise injury

Drowning
Supervise child

Burns/scalds
Keeping matches out of reach
Fireguards
Handles of cooking pans away from toddlers


Poisoning
Toy materials such as modelling clay and paint should be non toxic as they are likely to put that in their mouths
Garden plants that are highly toxic should be avoided

Infection
Washable toys

Strangulation
Avoid giving cord/ribbons to children over 30cm

Cuts
Toys should be unbreakable
Remove staples

Electrocution
Socket cover and supervision

The CE mark means:
Meets the European community standards of safety.

The lion mark:
Used on British made toys that meet the British safety standards.


Health and safety in the home:
Children under seven have accidents at home
Parents finding it difficult to supervise several children
Safety precaution to consider supervision and
Constant use of safety equipment which includes:
Harnesses and reins- prevent children from falling out of high chairs, should be able to take off easily when feeding the baby
Corner covers so toddlers are prevented from catching their head and eyes into the furnitature
Socket covers to prevent children from poking electric sockets
Must be consistently used
Drawer and cupboard catches so that children do not open cupboards, windows and drawers as dangerous items such as chemicals might be there.
Catches weaken over time so not completely child proof.
Safety gates to prevent children falling down the stairs and having access to the kitchen
Adults should use them consistently and make sure they are properly fitted.


Health and safety in the play area:
To keep them in a play pen where it is a safe environment for a short period.
Should not be used as a substitute for adult supervision, should be kept there for short periods of time and should be suitable for the age and stage of the baby.
Check the area is free from dog mess as this contains the toxacara worm which if ingested can cause blindness.
Wash children hands after playing outdoors and before eating or drinking
Check there is no broken glass or syringes or overflowing bins that would attract wasps.
Tell children not to leave with strangers


Health and safety in the care settings:
Feeding:
Risk:
Choking
Allergic reaction
Falling from high chairs
Infection
Burning and scalds
Prevention:
Should supervise children
Be aware of the food they are allergic too
Harness should be used in high chairs
Making children wash their hands before they eat
Checking food and drink temperature before being served to children

Nappy changing:
Risk:
Infection
Prevention:
Hand washing
Correct disposal of the dirty nappy.

Nap time:
Risk:
Suffocation
Falls
Sudden infant death
Prevention:
Follow advice to prevent sudden infant death syndrome
Securely fasten cots
By suitable beds depending on age group
Not give pillows or soft toys to babies or toddlers
Monitor the child/children

Outdoor play:
Risk:
Falls
Prevention:
Enough space for the bikes
Helmets should be provided


Health and safety when using toys and equipment:
Protective clothing and cycle helmets to prevent head injuries and cuts if children fall of their bike and other wheeled toys
Must be consistently used


Health and safety when near water:
Drowning
Supervise child

ATTACHMENT:

STAGES OF HOW CHILDREN DEVELOP ATTACHMENT:
6weeks-3months
They start to smile

3months-7/8months
INDISCRIMINATE ATTACHMENTS
Babies learn to:
· Make out faces- showing pleasure when they recognise familiar faces
· Likes to be with other people

7/8months
SPECIFIC ATTACHMENTS
Miss key people and show signs of distress e.g. crying when they leave the room
Develop strong attachment usually with the mother
Wariness of stranger even around the key people
The wariness can turn into fear if these strangers make direct contact e.g. touching them

Children at this age will show separation anxiety is they are separated from their main attachments.
Three stages of separation anxiety are:
PROTEST
Child crying/struggling to escape, kick and show anger
DESPAIR
Show calm behaviour as though they have accepted the separation. They may be quiet and sad. Comfort behaviour is shown such as thumb sucking or rocking
DETACHMENT
Children cope by forgetting the relationship
The long lasting effect of this is finding it hard to trust people they care for.

8months
MULTIPLE ATTACHMENTS
Important for their socialisation process


ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOUR:
Wanting to be near the other person

Crying/ showing visible distress when that person is not around

Showing joy/relief when the person reappears

Making sure the person is around by looking up at time to time, responding to their voice and following their movements

Short separation:
Babies/toddlers form surrogate attachments who gives them temporary security while the parent or careers are away.

Factors affecting human development:

How???
Genetics:
Genes=contain information that controls human growth and development. Identical twins have the same genotype (set of genes).
Maturation= biological plan that determines development. In the genotype there are instructions about the sequence and timing of development.
Types of maturational development:
Universality= a characteristic performed/shown by all infants over the world/universe.
Critical period= language achievement is an example. Infants learn language quickly so therefore they would find it easy to learn two different languages compared to an older child who would find it more difficult to learn a new language.

How humans are similar:
Built on the same basic pattern-bones, muscles, nerves ect……

How human are different:
Genetic differences Influence:
Growth- shorter and taller people
Characteristics- eye colour
Personality- bad tempered and calmer people

Group differences:
Males and females- different chromosomes. Females have XX and males have XY. They have different hormones, Men have higher levels of testosterone which increases aggressive behaviour, and females have higher levels of estrogen which makes them more emotional.

Higher levels of testosterone can slow down develop the left hemisphere of the brain- not very good at language.


Ancestors who lived in different environment: people may be living in environments not suited to them.
People with fair skin who lived in tropical region had a higher risk of skin cancer,


Environmental:

Social factors:
Parenting styles:
Authoritarian= strict rules, uses punishments for minor faults, little choice, unaffectionate.
Democratic= frequent guidance, explains rules, punishes child for serious wrong doings, shares decision making, emotionally warm.
Permissive= emotionally warm, little guidance/control- child therefore has a lot of autonomy, does not really apply rules/boundaries, ignore unwanted behaviour.

Children from:
Authoritarian parents= used aggression to get what they want.
Democratic parents=were least aggressive
Permissive parents=were aggressive

Children from:
Authoritarian parents= were fearful, moody, easily annoyed, sulky and hostile.
Democratic parents=were self reliant, self control, cheerful, cooperative and motivated to do well.
Permissive parents= rebellious, low in self reliance, self control, aggressive and low in achievement and motivation.

Separation from parents can affect development. E.g. illness or death of a parent so child may go into care.

Children who have been physically or sexually abused by their parents may have a risk of a mental disorder and delinquency/anti social behaviour.

Peers= learn behaviours of them e.g. language development

Children who have little or no contact with peers develop different behaviours, beliefs and attitudes which may be seen as weird.

Play opportunities= play that involves exploring has an important role in cognitive development. So, suitable toys, materials and play spaces should be available.


Biological factors:
Nutrition= environment in the womb affects development. The foetus is likely to develop the max genetic potential if alcohol, toxic substances and disease are absent.
Malnourished children are unlikely to grow as tall as they could have done if they fed well. Their cognitive development may also be slower and lastly can slow down maturational development.

Lack of Exercise can result in less bone and muscle growth. This can lead to poor posture, back problems in later life.
Exercise helps motor skills such as balancing and climbing.